Compendium of the most significant studies with reference to properties, intake, effects.

Perrone G, Susca A. Penicillium Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins. Methods Mol Biol. 2017;1542:107-119. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6707-0_5. 

Abstract. Penicillium are very diverse and cosmopolite fungi, about 350 species are recognized within this genus. It is subdivided in four subgenera Aspergilloides, Penicillium, Furcatum, and Biverticillium; recently the first three has been included in Penicillium genus, and Biverticillium under Talaromyces. They occur worldwide and play important roles as decomposers of organic materials, cause destructive rots in the food industry where produces a wide range of mycotoxins; they are considered enzyme factories, and common indoor air irritants. In terms of human health are rarely associated as human pathogen because they hardly growth at 37°, while the main risk is related to ingestion of food contaminated by mycotoxins produced by several species of Penicillium. Various mycotoxins can occur in foods and feeds contaminated by Penicillium species, the most important are ochratoxin A and patulin; for which regulation are imposed in a number of countries, and at a less extent cyclopiazonic acid. In this chapter we summarize the main aspect of the morphology, ecology and toxigenicity of Penicillium foodborne mycotoxigenic species which belong mainly in subgenus Penicillium sections Brevicompacta, Chrysogena, Fasciculata, Penicillium, and Roquefortorum.

Mioso R, Toledo Marante FJ, Herrera Bravo de Laguna I. Penicillium roqueforti: a multifunctional cell factory of high value-added molecules. J Appl Microbiol. 2015 Apr;118(4):781-91. doi: 10.1111/jam.12706.

Abstract. This is a comprehensive review, with 114 references, of the chemical diversity found in the fungus Penicillium roqueforti. Secondary metabolites of an alkaloidal nature are described, for example, ergot alkaloids such as festuclavine, isofumigaclavines A and B, and diketopiperazine alkaloids such as roquefortines A-D, which are derived from imidazole. Other metabolites are marcfortines A-C, PR-toxin, eremofortines A-E, mycophenolic and penicillic acids, and some γ-lactones. Also, recent developments related to the structural characteristics of botryodiplodin and andrastin are studied-the latter has anticancer properties. Finally, we discuss the enzymes of P. roqueforti, which can participate in the biotechnological production of high value-added molecules, as well as the use of secondary metabolite profiles for taxonomic purposes.

Park MS, Oh SY, Fong JJ, Houbraken J, Lim YW. The diversity and ecological roles of Penicillium in intertidal zones. Sci Rep. 2019 Sep 19;9(1):13540. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-49966-5. PMID: 31537866; 

Abstract. Members of the genus Penicillium are commonly isolated from various terrestrial and marine environments, and play an important ecological role as a decomposer. To gain insight into the ecological role of Penicillium in intertidal zones, we investigated the Penicillium diversity and community structure using a culture-dependent technique and a culture independent metagenomic approach using ITS (ITS-NGS) and partial β-tubulin (BenA-NGS) as targets. The obtained isolates were tested for halotolerance, enzyme activity, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degradation. A total of 96 Penicillium species were identified from the investigated intertidal zones. Although the BenA-NGS method was efficient for detecting Penicillium, some species were only detected using conventional isolation and/or the ITS-NGS method. The Penicillium community displayed a significant degree of variation relative to season (summer and winter) and seaside (western and southern coast). Many Penicillium species isolated in this study exhibited cellulase and protease activity, and/or degradation of PAHs. These findings support the important role of Penicillium in the intertidal zone for nutrient recycling and pollutant degradation.

Paterson RR, Venâncio A, Lima N. Solutions to Penicillium taxonomy crucial to mycotoxin research and health. Res Microbiol. 2004 Sep;155(7):507-13. doi: 10.1016/j.resmic.2004.04.001.

Abstract. The stability of taxonomy within Penicillium is reviewed with respect to mycotoxin production. Identification remains difficult despite the availability of modern methods. Proficiency testing is rare and conventional identifications do not inform reliably as to whether mycotoxins were detected/produced. A solution which consists of identifying a Penicillium strain as terverticillate and then undertaking mycotoxin analysis is described.

Santini A, Mikušová P, Sulyok M, Krska R, Labuda R, Srobárová A. Penicillium strains isolated from Slovak grape berries taxonomy assessment by secondary metabolite profile. Mycotoxin Res. 2014 Nov;30(4):213-20. doi: 10.1007/s12550-014-0205-3. 

Abstract. The secondary metabolite profiles of microfungi of the genus Penicillium isolated from samples of grape berries collected in two different phases during two vegetative seasons in Slovakia is described to assess the taxonomy. Three Slovak vine regions have been selected for this study, based on their climatic differences and national economic importance. Cultures of microfungi isolated from berries were incubated on different selective media for macro and micromorphology identification. The species Penicillium brevicompactum, Penicillium crustosum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium expansum, Penicillium palitans and Penicillium polonicum were identified according to growth and morphology. The related strains were found to produce a broad spectrum of fungal metabolites, including roquefortine C, chaetoglobosin A, penitrem A, cyclopeptin, cyclopenin, viridicatin, methylviridicatin, verrucofortine, secalonic acid D, cyclopiazonic acid, fumigaclavine and mycophenolic acid. Chemotaxonomy was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Dried grape berries were also analyzed allowing to assess the presence of patulin, roquefortine C and penicillic acid; this last one has been identified in dried berries but not in vitro.

Mansouri S, Houbraken J, Samson RA, Frisvad JC, Christensen M, Tuthill DE, Koutaniemi S, Hatakka A, Lankinen P. Penicillium subrubescens, a new species efficiently producing inulinase. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2013 Jun;103(6):1343-57. doi: 10.1007/s10482-013-9915-3. 

Abstract. Inulin is a reserve carbohydrate in about 15 % of the flowering plants and is accumulated in underground tubers of e.g. chicory, dahlia and Jerusalem artichoke. This carbohydrate consists of linear chains of β-(2,1)-linked fructose attached to a sucrose molecule. Inulinases hydrolyse inulin into fructose and glucose. To find efficient inulin degrading fungi, 126 fungal strains from the Fungal Biotechnology Culture Collection (FBCC) at University of Helsinki and 74 freshly isolated strains from soil around Jerusalem artichoke tubers were screened in liquid cultures with inulin as a sole source of carbon or ground Jerusalem artichoke tubers, which contains up to 19 % (fresh weight) inulin. Inulinase and invertase activities were assayed by the dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method and a freshly isolated Penicillium strain originating from agricultural soil (FBCC 1632) was the most efficient inulinase producer. When it was cultivated at pH 6 and 28 °C in 2 litre bioreactors using inulin and Jerusalem artichoke as a carbon source, inulinase and invertase activities were on day 4 7.7 and 3.1 U mL(-1), respectively. The released sugars analysed by TLC and HPLC showed that considerable amounts of fructose were released while the levels of oligofructans were low, indicating an exoinulinase type of activity. Taxonomic study of the inulinase producing strain showed that this isolate represents a new species belonging in Penicillium section Lanata-divaricata. This new species produces a unique combination of extrolites and is phenotypically and phylogenetically closely related to Penicillium pulvillorum. We propose the name Penicillium subrubescens sp. nov. (CBS 132785(T) = FBCC 1632(T)) for this new species.

Vanittanakom N, Cooper CR Jr, Fisher MC, Sirisanthana T. Penicillium marneffei infection and recent advances in the epidemiology and molecular biology aspects. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 Jan;19(1):95-110. doi: 10.1128/CMR.19.1.95-110.2006. 

Abstract. Penicillium marneffei infection is an important emerging public health problem, especially among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus in the areas of endemicity in southeast Asia, India, and China. Within these regions, P. marneffei infection is regarded as an AIDS-defining illness, and the severity of the disease depends on the immunological status of the infected individual. Early diagnosis by serologic and molecular assay-based methods have been developed and are proving to be important in diagnosing infection. The occurrence of natural reservoirs and the molecular epidemiology of P. marneffei have been studied; however, the natural history and mode of transmission of the organism remain unclear. Soil exposure, especially during the rainy season, has been suggested to be a critical risk factor. Using a highly discriminatory molecular technique, multilocus microsatellite typing, to characterize this fungus, several isolates from bamboo rats and humans were shown to share identical multilocus genotypes. These data suggest either that transmission of P. marneffei may occur from rodents to humans or that rodents and humans are coinfected from common environmental sources. These putative natural cycles of P. marneffei infection need further investigation. Studies on the fungal genetics of P. marneffei have been focused on the characterization of genetic determinants that may play important roles in asexual development, mycelial-to-yeast phase transition, and the expression of antigenic determinants. Molecular studies have identified several genes involved in germination, hyphal development, conidiogenesis, and yeast cell polarity. A number of functionally important genes, such as the malate synthase- and catalase-peroxidase protein-encoding genes, have been identified as being upregulated in the yeast phase. Future investigations pertaining to the roles of these genes in host-fungus interactions may provide the key knowledge to understanding the pathogenicity of P. marneffei.

Kozlovskiĭ AG, Zhelifonova VP, Antipova TV. Fungi of the genus Penicillium as producers of physiologically active compounds (review). Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol. 2013 Jan-Feb;49(1):5-16.  doi: 10.7868/s0555109913010091.

Abstract. Fungi of the genus Penicillium isolated from little studied habitats are able to synthesize both previously known and new physiologically active compounds with diverse structures. They include secondary metabolites of alkaloid nature, i.e., ergot alkaloids, diketopiperazines, quinolines, quinazolines, benzodiazepines, and polyketides. We discuss the use of profiles of secondary metabolites for taxonomy purposes. Studying the physicochemical characteristics of producers of biologically active compounds showed that the biosynthesis of alkaloids is initiated on the first days of cultivation and proceeds simultaneously with growth. The cyclic character of alkaloid accumulation was recorded related to the processes of alkaloid biosynthesis, excretion from cells, degradation in culture fluid, and consumption by cells. Synchronic variations in the concentrations of intracellular tryptophan and alkaloids are necessary for the regulation of the optimal quantity of tryptophan necessary for the culture.