What methods have been used to estimate salt intake? A systematic review.
Perin MS, Gallani MCBJ, Andrechuk CRS, São-João TM, Rhéaume C, Cornélio ME.
Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2019 May 31:1-14. doi: 10.1080/09637486.2019.1620185.

Sodium-Intake Reduction and the Food Industry.
Henney JE, O'Hara JA 3rd, Taylor CL.
N Engl J Med. 2019 May 29. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1905244

Salt-induced effects on microvascular function: A critical factor in hypertension mediated organ damage.
Marketou ME, Maragkoudakis S, Anastasiou I, Nakou H, Plataki M, Vardas PE, Parthenakis FI.
J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2019 Apr 19. doi: 10.1111/jch.13535.

Salt intake and prevalence of overweight/obesity in Japan, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States: the INTERMAP Study.
Zhou L, Stamler J, Chan Q, Van Horn L, Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, Miura K, Okuda N, Wu Y, Ueshima H, Elliott P, Zhao L; INTERMAP Research Group.
Am J Clin Nutr. 2019 May 21. pii: nqz067. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz067

Belief in the Need for Sodium Supplementation During Ultramarathons Remains Strong: Findings from the Ultrarunners Longitudinal TRAcking (ULTRA) Study.
Hoffman MD, White MD.
Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2019 Jun 4. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0238.

Dietary Quality Assessed by the HEI-2010 and Biomarkers of Cardiometabolic Disease: An Exploratory Analysis.
Crowe-White KM, Ellis AC, Mehta T, Locher JL, Ard JD.
J Am Coll Nutr. 2019 May 30:1-8. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2019.1580168.

Reducing the sodium content without modifying the quality of beef burgers by adding micronized salt.
Rios-Mera JD, Saldaña E, Cruzado-Bravo MLM, Patinho I, Selani MM, Valentin D, Contreras-Castillo CJ.
Food Res Int. 2019 Jul;121:288-295. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.03.044. Epub 2019 Mar 20.

Insulin Resistance and Renal Sodium Handling Influence Arterial Stiffness in Hypertensive Patients with Prevailing Sodium Intake.
Cwynar M, Gąsowski J, Gryglewska B, Głuszewska A, Kwater A, Królczyk J, Fołta M, Bartoń H, Grodzicki T.
Am J Hypertens. 2019 Apr 25. pii: hpz063. doi: 10.1093/ajh/hpz063.

Dietary habits of adolescents living in North America, Europe or Oceania: A review on fruit, vegetable and legume consumption, sodium intake, and adherence to the Mediterranean Diet.
Rosi A, Paolella G, Biasini B, Scazzina F; SINU Working Group on Nutritional Surveillance in Adolescents.
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2019 Jun;29(6):544-560. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2019.03.003.

More salt, please: global patterns, responses and impacts of foliar sodium in grasslands.
Borer ET, Lind EM, Firn J, Seabloom EW, Anderson TM, Bakker ES, Biederman L, La Pierre KJ, MacDougall AS, Moore JL, Risch AC, Schutz M, Stevens CJ.
Ecol Lett. 2019 May 10. doi: 10.1111/ele.13270

Comparison of Salt Intake in Children to that of their Parents.
Cotter J, Cotter MJ, Oliveira P, Cunha P, Torres E, Polonia J.
Nephron. 2019 May 8:1-7. doi: 10.1159/000499344.

Application of Mobile Health Technologies Aimed at Salt Reduction: Systematic Review.
Ali SH, Luo R, Li Y, Liu X, Tang C, Zhang P.
JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2019 Apr 17;7(4):e13250. doi: 10.2196/13250. Review.

Effect of two dosages of sodium chloride intake on the blood pressure response to caffeinated coffee in humans in vivo.
Esselink AC, Bril LM, Langenhuijsen RW, Bilos A, Riksen NP, Rongen GA.
Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2019 Apr 10:1-6. doi: 10.1080/09637486.2019.1595541.

Frequency of Use of Added Sugar, Salt, and Fat in Infant Foods up to 10 Months in the Nationwide ELFE Cohort Study: Associated Infant Feeding and Caregiving Practices.
Bournez M, Ksiazek E, Charles MA, Lioret S, Brindisi MC, de Lauzon-Guillain B, Nicklaus S.
Nutrients. 2019 Mar 29;11(4). pii: E733. doi: 10.3390/nu11040733.

Reviewing the effects of dietary salt on cognition: mechanisms and future directions.
Kendig MD, Morris MJ.
Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2019;28(1):6-14. doi: 10.6133/apjcn.201903_28(1).0002.

Hypertension Associated with Fructose and High Salt: Renal and Sympathetic Mechanisms.
Komnenov D, Levanovich PE, Rossi NF.
Nutrients. 2019 Mar 7;11(3). pii: E569. doi: 10.3390/nu11030569.

Dietary Sodium Intake is Predicted by Antihypertensive Medication Regimen in Patients With Heart Failure.
Smith JL, Lennie TA, Chung ML, Mudd-Martin G.
J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2019 Mar 6. doi: 10.1097/JCN.0000000000000570.

Perinatal iron deficiency and a high salt diet cause long-term kidney mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress.
Woodman AG, Mah R, Keddie DL, Noble RMN, Holody CD, Panahi S, Gragasin FS, Lemieux H, Bourque SL.
Cardiovasc Res. 2019 Jan 31. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvz029.

Sodium is a member of the group of alkaline metals and is essential for human, animal and plant metabolism.

Atomic number 11

Since sodium is frequently found in foods and beverages on the market, it is advisable to evaluate it from a healthy point of view.

However, sodium has food contraindications. Let's see some studies.

Sodium is an essential nutrient, however increasing sodium intake is associated with increasing blood pressure, whereas low sodium intake results in increased renin and aldosterone levels (1).

For those suffering from high blood pressure, lowering blood pressure can be achieved by reducing the intake of sodium in the diet (2).

An optimal sodium intake target could be set at less than 2300 mg per day (100 mmol / 24 hours) (3). This recommendation applies to those suffering from diabetes, but is also recommended for the rest of the population that does not suffer from specific diseases.

These recommendations are quite known to everyone, even to those who do not read the scientific literature on the subject. However the reality is quite different. In this study sodium intake data collected from 1999 to 2016 in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys were analyzed. Trends in sodium intake for individuals ≥18years and in subgroups based on age, sex, race/ethnicity and sodium-sensitive chronic diseases were examined.
Sodium intake has remained above recommended levels in all segments of the adult population and adherence to guidelines is poor. Novel interventions are needed to reduce sodium intake (4).

Another aspect of sodium intake is that eating salty foods or drinks does not lessen thirst but increases it. And with the increase in sodium intake there is generally an increase in body weight (5).

Sodium can be found, for industrial use, in:

• wooden building materials
• plastic building materials
• foodstuffs
• detergents
• cosmetics
• computer
• cameras
• lamps
• refrigerators
• washing machines

Sodium studies

Molecular Formula: Na

Molecular Weight: 22.99

UNII: 9NEZ333N27   23J3BHR95O

CAS: 7440-23-5   64975-43-5  64975-44-6  7646-69-7  184637-88-5  213530-35-9  351903-26-9  1061193-24-5

EC Number: 231-132-9

PubChem Substance ID 24871915

MDL number MFCD00085307

Synonyms:

• Natrium
• AC1NSENP
• 11Na
• HSDB 687
• ACMC-1BKTZ
• Sodium-23
• AC1Q1W6R
• CHEBI:26708
• TRA-0177117
• CTK2H7876
• AKOS015833457
• ANW-56400
• AN-21807
• AB01566864_01
• SC-91613
• UN142

References____________________________________________

(1) Sodium intake and cardiovascular health. O'Donnell M, Mente A, Yusuf S. Circ Res. 2015 Mar 13;116(6):1046-57. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.303771. 
(2) Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials.   He FJ, Li J, Macgregor GA.  BMJ 2013;346:f1325 10.1136/bmj.f1325
(3) Lifestyle Management: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2018. American Diabetes Association 4. Diabetes Care 2018;41(Suppl 1):S38–S50. 10.2337/dc18-S004  
(4) Trends in Dietary Sodium Intake in the United States and the Impact of USDA Guidelines: NHANES 1999-2016. Brouillard AM, Kraja AT, Rich MW.  Am J Med. 2019 May 16. pii: S0002-9343(19)30427-9. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2019.04.040.
(5) Sodium intake may promote weight gain; results of the FANPE study in a representative sample of the adult Spanish population. Navia B, Aparicio A, Perea JM, Pérez-Farinós N, Villar-Villalba C, Labrado E, Ortega RM. Nutr Hosp. 2014 Jun 1;29(6):1283-9. doi: 10.3305/nh.2014.29.6.7361.