Compendium of the most significant studies with reference to properties, intake, effects.

Takemura M, Sahara T, Misawa N. Violaxanthin: natural function and occurrence, biosynthesis, and heterologous production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2021 Aug;105(16-17):6133-6142. doi: 10.1007/s00253-021-11452-2.

Abstract

Violaxanthin is biosynthesized from zeaxanthin with zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP) by way of antheraxanthin only in photosynthetic eukaryotes including higher plants and involved in the xanthophyll cycle to eliminate excessive light energy. Violaxanthin and antheraxanthin have commercially been unavailable, in contrast to commercial production of other carotenoids contained in higher plants, e.g., lycopene, β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and capsanthin. One of the reasons is considered that resource plants or other resource organisms do not exist for enabling efficient supply of the epoxy-carotenoids, which are expected to be produced through (metabolic) pathway engineering with heterologous microbial hosts such as Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this Mini-Review, we show heterologous production of violaxanthin with the two microorganisms that have exhibited significant advances these days. We further describe natural function and occurrence, and biosynthesis involving violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, and their derivatives that include auroxanthin and mutatoxanthin.

Goss R, Schwarz C, Matzner M, Wilhelm C. Influence of the compatible solute sucrose on thylakoid membrane organization and violaxanthin de-epoxidation. Planta. 2021 Aug 15;254(3):52. doi: 10.1007/s00425-021-03699-w.

Kim HM, Jung JH, Kim JY, Heo J, Cho DH, Kim HS, An S, An IS, Bae S. The Protective Effect of Violaxanthin from Nannochloropsis oceanica against Ultraviolet B-Induced Damage in Normal Human Dermal Fibroblasts. Photochem Photobiol. 2019 Mar;95(2):595-604. doi: 10.1111/php.13030.

Chen L, Yan Z, Xia Z, Cheng Y, Jiao Z, Sun B, Zhou T, Fan Z. A Violaxanthin Deepoxidase Interacts with a Viral Suppressor of RNA Silencing to Inhibit Virus Amplification. Plant Physiol. 2017 Dec;175(4):1774-1794. doi: 10.1104/pp.17.00638.

Araki M, Kaku N, Harada M, Ando Y, Yamaguchi R, Shindo K. Production of Auroxanthins from Violaxanthin and 9-cis-Violaxanthin by Acidic Treatment and the Antioxidant Activities of Violaxanthin, 9-cis-Violaxanthin, and Auroxanthins. J Agric Food Chem. 2016 Dec 14;64(49):9352-9355. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04506.

Dlouhý O, Kurasová I, Karlický V, Javornik U, Šket P, Petrova NZ, Krumova SB, Plavec J, Ughy B, Špunda V, Garab G. Modulation of non-bilayer lipid phases and the structure and functions of thylakoid membranes: effects on the water-soluble enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase. Sci Rep. 2020 Jul 20;10(1):11959. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-68854-x.

Soontornchaiboon W, Joo SS, Kim SM. Anti-inflammatory effects of violaxanthin isolated from microalga Chlorella ellipsoidea in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biol Pharm Bull. 2012;35(7):1137-44. doi: 10.1248/bpb.b12-00187.

Schaller S, Wilhelm C, Strzałka K, Goss R. Investigating the interaction between the violaxanthin cycle enzyme zeaxanthin epoxidase and the thylakoid membrane. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2012 Sep 3;114:119-25. doi: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2012.05.019.

Jahns P, Latowski D, Strzalka K. Mechanism and regulation of the violaxanthin cycle: the role of antenna proteins and membrane lipids. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009 Jan;1787(1):3-14. doi: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2008.09.013.

Esteban R, Jiménez ET, Jiménez MS, Morales D, Hormaetxe K, Becerril JM, García-Plazaola JI. Dynamics of violaxanthin and lutein epoxide xanthophyll cycles in Lauraceae tree species under field conditions. Tree Physiol. 2007 Oct;27(10):1407-14. doi: 10.1093/treephys/27.10.1407.

Violaxanthin is an epoxidized carotenoid of plant origin with strong antioxidant activity and gives many vegetables their purple color and generates Neoxanthin, another carotenoid.

Violaxanthin is a natural pigment belonging to the carotenoid class. It is found in many plants and algae, where it plays an important role in protection against sunlight damage and oxidative stress. It is responsible for some of the yellow and orange hues in vegetables. Violaxanthin is also known for its antioxidant properties and is being studied for its potential health benefits.

Raw materials used in production:

Plant Sources. Violaxanthin is extracted from plant sources such as green leaves, yellow and orange peppers, and certain varieties of flowers and fruits.

Solvents and Reagents. Used to extract and purify violaxanthin from plant sources.

Industrial Chemical Production of Violaxanthin

• Extraction. Violaxanthin is extracted from plant sources using appropriate solvents. This process typically involves the use of organic solvents to extract the pigment from plant cells.
• Purification. After extraction, violaxanthin is purified to remove impurities and concentrate the pigment.
• Quality Control and Packaging. Once purified, violaxanthin undergoes quality checks to ensure it meets the required standards. After quality control, it is packaged for use in dietary supplements and as a food coloring.

Commercial applications:

Food Industry. Used as a natural colorant in various food products, violaxanthin is a yellow pigment found in many plants and vegetables.

Dietary Supplements. May be included in supplements for its antioxidant properties and to contribute to eye health.

Antioxidant Properties. As a carotenoid, violaxanthin has antioxidant properties that help protect cells from oxidative damage.

Scientific Research. Studied for its potential role in preventing chronic diseases, including eye disorders like macular degeneration.

Safety. Generally considered safe as a food additive and supplement, but it's always advisable to adhere to recommended dosages.

Studies

In this study on carotenoids, a list of fruits and vegetables and the percentages contained (1).

Violaxanthin by violaxanthin de-epoxidase catalyzes the conversion of violaxanthin to zeaxanthin (2).

It is labeled as E161e on the European color food additives list.

Violaxanthin studies

Molecular Formula: C₄₀H₅₆O₄

Molecular Weight: 600.884 g/mol

UNII: 51C926029A

CAS: 126-29-4

PubChem Substance ID 329757838

Beilstein Registry Number 101269

Synonyms:

• Zeaxanthin diepoxide
• all-trans-Violaxanthin
• trans-Violaxanthin
• 5,6:5',6'-Diepoxy-5,5',6,6'-tetrahydro-|A-carotene-3,3'-diol
• 5,6,5',6'-diepoxy-5,6,5',6'-tetrahydro-beta,beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
• 5,6:5',6'-Diepoxy-5,5',6,6'-tetrahydro-beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
• (3S,5R,6S,3'S,5'R,6'S)-5,6,5',6'-DIEPOXY-5,6,5',6'- TETRAHYDRO-BETA,BETA-CAROTENE-3,3'-DIOL
• (3S,3'S,5R,5'R,6S,6'S)-5,5',6,6'-tetrahydro-5,6:5',6'-diepoxy-beta,beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
• XAT
• Zeaxanthin diepoxidl
• (9Z)-Violaxanthin
• 13-cis-Violaxanthin
• all-trans-Violaxanthil
• (1R,3S,6S)-6-[(1E,3E,5E,7E,9E,11E,13E,15E,17E)-18-[(1R,3S,6S)-3-hydroxy-1,5,5-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-6-yl]-3,7,12,16-tetramethyloctadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17-nonaenyl]-1,5,5-trimethyl-7-oxabicyclo[4.1.0]heptan-3-ol
• (3S,3'S,5R,5'R, 6S,6'S)-5,6:5',6'-Diepoxy-5,5',6,6'-tetrahydro-beta,beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
• (3S,3'S,5R,5'R,6S,6'S)-5,6:5',6'-diepoxy-5,5',6,6'-tetrahydro-beta,beta-carotene-3,3'-diol
• (3S,5R,6S,3'S,5'R,6'S)-5,6,5',6'-DIEPOXY-5,6,5',6'-TETRAHYDRO-BETA,BETA-CAROTENE-3,3'-DIOL