Enzymes are complex macromolecules primarily made up of proteins but can also include non-protein components like coenzymes, metals, and prosthetic groups. Their specificity and catalytic activity are determined by their three-dimensional structure and active sites.

The industrial production of enzymes often employs microorganisms such as bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli), fungi (e.g., Aspergillus), and yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae). These microorganisms are genetically engineered to overexpress the desired enzyme in large quantities.

Step-by-step summary of the industrial chemical synthesis process.

• Selection and optimization of the enzyme-producing microorganism through genetic engineering techniques.
• Cultivation of the microorganism in bioreactors under controlled conditions to maximize enzyme production.
• Harvesting and lysing of microbial cells to release intracellular enzymes.
• Separation of the enzyme from other cell components through processes like centrifugation, ultrafiltration, and chromatography.
• Further purification steps to achieve high-quality enzyme preparations.
• Formulation of the enzyme into stable and convenient forms for storage and use.

Enzymes are generally colorless, but their form and consistency can range from viscous liquids to dry powders, depending on the formulation and production process.

Medical Applications

Replacement Therapies. For conditions like pancreatic enzyme deficiency (1), enzymes are administered to assist digestion (2).

Diagnostics. Enzymes are used in laboratory tests to diagnose various conditions, such as a heart attack.

Biomedical Research. Enzymes are pivotal for many reactions and processes in the lab, such as PCR (3).

Commercial Applications

Food Industry. Enzymes are used in the production of many foods including bread (e.g., amylase), cheeses (rennin), and beer (zymase).

Cleaning Products. Enzymes, like proteases, are used in detergents to enhance efficacy in stain removal.

Biofuel Production. Enzymes help break down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented into ethanol.

Textile and Paper Industries. Used to modify and enhance fibers.

References_____________________________________________________________________

(1) Whitcomb DC, Lowe ME. Human pancreatic digestive enzymes. Dig Dis Sci. 2007 Jan;52(1):1-17. doi: 10.1007/s10620-006-9589-z.

Abstract. A primary function of the pancreas is to produce digestive enzymes that are delivered to the small intestine for the hydrolysis of complex nutrients. Much of our understanding of digestive enzymes comes from studies in animals. New technologies and the availability of the sequence of the human genome allow for a critical review of older reports and assumptions based on animal studies. This report updates our understanding of human pancreatic digestive enzymes with a focus on new insights into the biology of human proteases, lipases and amylases.

(2) Hoyle T. The digestive system: linking theory and practice. Br J Nurs. 1997 Dec 11-1998 Jan 7;6(22):1285-91. doi: 10.12968/bjon.1997.6.22.1285. 

Abstract. This article, the second in the nutrition series, presents an outline of food chemistry and the digestion of energy-producing foods. It is hoped that this will facilitate understanding of some of the principles of nutrition. A number of 'clinical points' are highlighted to emphasize the link between theory and practice. The processes by which the chemical building blocks (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen) are formed into more complex molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats are explained. The gross anatomy of the digestive system is outlined and the sites where digestive enzymes are secreted are identified. Regulation of the digestive system by endocrine secretions and the nervous system is described and tabulated.

(3) Dovgerd AP, Zharkov DO. Application of repair enzymes to improve the quality of degraded DNA templates for PCR amplification. Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol. 2014 May-Jun;50(3):264-72.  doi: 10.7868/s0555109914030210.

Abstract. PCR amplification of severely degraded DNA, including ancient DNA, forensic samples, and preparations from deeply processed foodstuffs, is a serious problem. Living organisms have a set of enzymes to repair lesions in their DNA. In this work, we have developed and characterized model systems of degraded high-molecular-weight DNA with a predominance of different types of damage. It was shown that depurination and oxidation of the model plasmid DNA template led to a decrease in the PCR efficiency. A set of enzymes performing a full cycle of excision repair of some lesions was determined. The treatment of model-damaged substrates with this set of enzymes resulted in an increased PCR product yield as compared with that of the unrepaired samples.