Capreolus capreolus (Roe deer) is a relatively small cervid, characterized by its slender build and graceful movements. Its coat changes seasonally, being reddish-brown in the summer and gray-brown in the winter, which helps it blend into its surroundings. Males have small but well-defined antlers, which are shed and regrown annually during the breeding season. These antlers typically feature three tines and are used in territorial fights. Females lack antlers. Roe deer have large, dark eyes that aid in detecting movement and long, mobile ears that enhance their ability to pick up distant sounds.

Scientific Classification:

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata
• Class: Mammalia
• Order: Artiodactyla
• Family: Cervidae
• Genus: Capreolus
• Species: Capreolus capreolus

Dimensions and Weight: The size of roe deer varies depending on the region and environmental conditions. Adult males (bucks) typically weigh between 15 and 35 kg, while females (does) are slightly lighter, ranging from 15 to 30 kg. Body length varies from 95 to 135 cm, and shoulder height ranges from 60 to 75 cm. Their compact and agile bodies allow them to move quickly through dense vegetation, using their speed and agility to evade predators.

Habitat: Roe deer are highly adaptable and thrive in a wide range of environments, including deciduous and mixed forests, open grasslands, and cultivated fields. They are found throughout much of Europe, from Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula to Scandinavia and across Eastern Europe into parts of Asia. Roe deer favor areas with dense vegetation for cover and food. During the summer months, they often move to forested areas or regions with thick undergrowth, while in winter, they may be seen foraging in more open areas, including agricultural fields.

Behavior and Habits: Roe deer are known for their territorial behavior, especially during the breeding season (July to August) when males become highly aggressive. They mark their territory using scent glands on their heads, rubbing them against trees and shrubs. Roe deer are generally solitary animals, though small family groups, particularly of females and their young, may form during the winter months. They are crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dusk, spending the rest of the day hidden in thick vegetation. Their agility and ability to make high jumps are key adaptations for escaping predators.

Dangers, Enemies, and Threats: Natural predators of roe deer include wolves whose numbers and predatory activity in Europe has increased tremendously and seems out of control, foxes and lynxes, but the greatest threat to their populations comes from human activity. Poaching, habitat destruction, and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion, urban development, and road construction have significantly reduced the availability of natural habitats for roe deer. Additionally, vehicle collisions are a common hazard in many regions where roe deer cross roads and highways. In some areas, overgrazing by roe deer can lead to conflicts with farmers, as their browsing habits can damage crops and forest saplings.

Protected or Endangered Species: The roe deer is not currently considered a globally threatened species, although wolf predation is driving this breed to an all-time low so much so that in order to escape predation, roe deer now even take refuge in cities. Which should lead to our days a serious rethinking and abolition of the status of protected animal of the wolf, also seen the danger of this predator towards man. (In 2024 on the heights between Finale Ligure and Noli, Liguria, Italy, a child was barely saved from being attacked by a wolf). In areas where populations have been reduced due to hunting or habitat loss, conservation programs have been implemented. In these regions, roe deer populations are carefully monitored, and efforts are made to protect critical habitats and ensure sustainable population growth.

References__________________________________________________________________________

Ebani VV, Trebino C, Guardone L, Bertelloni F, Cagnoli G, Altomonte I, Vignola P, Bongi P, Mancianti F. Retrospective Molecular Survey on Bacterial and Protozoan Abortive Agents in Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Central Italy. Animals (Basel). 2022 Nov 18;12(22):3202. doi: 10.3390/ani12223202. 

Abstract. Bacterial and protozoan agents can determine abortion and other reproductive disorders in domestic ruminants, but data regarding their occurrence in wild ruminants are scanty worldwide, including in Italy. The aim of this retrospective study was to verify the occurrence of the main bacterial and protozoan abortive agents in 72 spleen samples previously collected from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) living in mountain areas of Central Italy. All samples were collected and submitted to DNA extraction for other investigations. Molecular analyses were carried out on the DNA samples to detect Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, Neospora caninum, and Toxoplasma gondii. Three (4.16%) roe deer resulted PCR positive for C. burnetii and one (1.38%) for T. gondii. These findings suggest that roe deer living in the investigated areas do not act as important reservoirs of the searched agents. However, the tested animals lived in a closed area without contact with domestic animals that are usually involved in the epidemiology of the investigated pathogens. Monitoring of wild ruminants is pivotal to verify changes in the epidemiological scenario from a One Health perspective, too.

Žele Vengušt D, Kuhar U, Jerina K, Vengušt G. Twenty Years of Passive Disease Surveillance of Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Slovenia. Animals (Basel). 2021 Feb 5;11(2):407. doi: 10.3390/ani11020407. PMID: 33562662; 

Abstract. In this paper, we provide an overview of the causes of death of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) diagnosed within the national passive health surveillance of roe deer in Slovenia. From 2000 to 2019, postmortem examinations of 510 free-ranging roe deer provided by hunters were conducted at the Veterinary Faculty, Slovenia. A comprehensive necropsy was performed. According to the results of the necropsy, the samples were subjected to microscopic, histopathological, bacteriological, parasitological, or virological examination. The most frequent causes of death in roe deer were infectious diseases (67%), followed by noninfectious diseases (28%). Of all deaths, parasitic infections represented 48%, bacterial infections 14.8%, trauma 12.5%, and metabolic disorders 9.8%. Less frequent causes were diseases like neoplasia and mycotic infections, winter starvation, hernias, and lightning strike. This study covered an estimated 1% of the total disease-related mortality of roe deer in Slovenia. Comparisons of sex/age structure indicated that hunters did not provide random samples (e.g., young males were disproportionately represented). Therefore, such monitoring does not ensure an unbiased assessment of the significance of the individual disease for the mortality of the population; however, it can provide credible evidence of whether or not a particular disease is present in a population. We show that no identified disease in roe deer in Slovenia can be considered a significant health threat to roe deer, other wildlife species, or humans.

Huber N, Vetter SG, Evans AL, Kjellander P, Küker S, Bergvall UA, Arnemo JM. Quantifying capture stress in free ranging European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). BMC Vet Res. 2017 May 10;13(1):127. doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1045-0. 

Abstract. Background: To understand and reduce the concomitant effects of trapping and handling procedures in wildlife species, it is essential to measure their physiological impact. Here, we examined individual variation in stress levels in non-anesthetized European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), which were captured in box traps and physically restrained for tagging, biometrics and bio-sampling. In winter 2013, we collected venous blood samples from 28 individuals during 28 capture events and evaluated standard measurements for stress (heart rate, body temperature, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, lactate and total cortisol). Additionally, we assessed stress using the immunological tool, Leukocyte Coping Capacity (LCC), a real-time proxy for stress measuring oxygen radical production by leukocytes. Finally, the behavioral response to handling was recorded using a scoring system. Results: LCC and therefore stress levels were negatively influenced by the time animals spent in the box trap with human presence at the capture site prior to handling. In contrast, none of the classical stress measures, including total cortisol, nor the behavioral assessment, were correlated with the stressor tested (time of human presence prior to handling) and thus did not provide a clear depiction regarding the extent of the animals short-term stress response. Conclusions: Overall our study verifies the LCC as a strong method to quantify short-term stress reactions in wildlife. Moreover, our results clearly show that human presence at the trapping site prior to handling should be kept to an absolute minimum in order to reduce stress levels.

Elmi A, Zannoni A, Govoni N, Bertocchi M, Forni M, Ventrella D, Bacci ML. Uncovering the Physiological Mechanisms Underlying the Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) Testicular Cycle: Analyses of Gelatinases and VEGF Patterns and Correlation with Testes Weight and Testosterone. Animals (Basel). 2020 Mar 6;10(3):444. doi: 10.3390/ani10030444. 

Abstract. The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) represents a spontaneous model of testicular inactivation: During winter, bucks show a suspension of spermatogenesis that starts again in spring and peaks during the breeding season (July-August). The underlying mechanisms to the regulation of the cyclic testicular changes are still not fully clear but seem to be imputable to the spermatogenic cell line since other testicular cell populations remain stable without apoptotic phenomena. The aim of the study was to investigate apoptosis, gelatinases (MMP2 and 9), their inhibiting factors (TIMP 1-2), and two isoforms of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF121 and 165) with its receptors (VEGFR1-2) in testes collected during pre- and post-rut periods, and to correlate them with testicular weight (TW) and testosterone (TEST). Testes from 18 adult sexually mature bucks were collected in Bologna Apennines (Italy). Samples were weighed and parenchyma collected. Radioimmunoassay, real-time PCR, and zymography were performed. The results showed a post-rut decrease in TW and TEST and an increase in proMMP2, also highlighting a correlation between the gelatinases and the testicular functionality. The VEGF pattern did not show modifications nor correlation with TW and TEST. Overall, gelatinases and their inhibitors, described herein for the first time in roe deer testes, seem to play an important role in the testicular cycle.

Plis K, Niedziałkowska M, Borowik T, Lang J, Heddergott M, Tiainen J, Bunevich A, Šprem N, Paule L, Danilkin A, Kholodova M, Zvychaynaya E, Kashinina N, Pokorny B, Flajšman K, Paulauskas A, Djan M, Ristić Z, Novák L, Kusza S, Miller C, Tsaparis D, Stoyanov S, Shkvyria M, Suchentrunk F, Kutal M, Lavadinović V, Šnjegota D, Krapal AM, Dănilă G, Veeroja R, Dulko E, Jędrzejewska B. Pan-European phylogeography of the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Ecol Evol. 2022 May 19;12(5):e8931. doi: 10.1002/ece3.8931. PMID: 35600675; PMCID: PMC9120558.